Diagnosis and treatment of herpes simplex virus diseases

ABSTRACT

The invention maps a herpes simplex labialis (HSL) susceptibility gene associated with HSL to the q11 region of chromosome 21. The invention provides methods of screening for susceptibility or resistance to herpes simplex virus, particularly herpes simplex labialis, and diagnosing herpetic diseases, such as HSL.

PRIORITY CLAIM

This application is a continuation of International Patent Application Serial No. PCT/US2003/033152, filed Oct. 18, 2003, for DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS DISEASES, which application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/419,576, filed Oct. 18, 2002, for DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS DISEASES, the entirety of each of which is hereby incorporated by reference.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was supported in part by funding through the University of Utah and a grant through the Keck Foundation. The United States Government may have some rights in the invention.

STATEMENT ACCORDING TO 37 C.F.R. § 1.52(e)(5)-SEQUENCE LISTING SUBMITTED ON COMPACT DISC

Pursuant to 37 C.F.R. § 1.52(e)(1)(iii), a compact disc containing an electronic version of the Sequence Listing has been submitted concomitant with this application, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. A second compact disk is submitted and is an identical copy of the first compact disc. The discs are labeled, “copy 1” and “copy 2,” respectively, and each disc contains one file entitled “Sequence Listing ST25.txt” which is 490 KB, and created on Apr. 11, 2005.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention relates to one or more genes conferring resistance or susceptibility to herpes simplex labialis (HSL).

BACKGROUND

Over 50% of the U.S. population is infected with either herpes simplex viruses (HSV) types 1 (HSV-1) and or type 2 (HSV-2). Furthermore, herpes simplex virus has been estimated to affect over one third of the world's population. Reactivations of HSV-1 infection cause herpes simplex labialis (HSL, “cold sores,” or “fever blisters”), the most common recurring viral infection in humans. HSV-2 reactivations cause genital herpes, a disease that continues to affect millions of people.

Herpes simplex labialis (HSL) is a common and ubiquitous infection of the skin due to herpes simplex virus (HSV). The vast majority of cases are due to HSV type 1 (HSV-1), although recurrent infections due to HSV type 2 have been reported. Roughly 20-40% of the US population will experience labial or perioral outbreaks of vesicular herpetic lesions.⁽¹⁻³⁾ The frequency of these outbreaks is extremely variable, ranging, in some individuals, from rare episodes every 5-10 years, to monthly or more frequent outbreaks among a small proportion of subjects.⁽⁴⁾ The severity of the illness is most often mild, although uncomfortable and disfiguring for many persons. The psychological impact of a prominent facial infection, particularly in young patients with frequent or severe recurrences, should not be underestimated. Among persons with an underlying immunosuppressing disease, lesions are of longer duration and may spread to cause major morbidity. Lastly, herpetic keratitis and herpes encephalitis are infrequent but grave complications of orofacial HSV-1 infection.

Herpes keratitis, due to HSV-1 infection of the corneal surface, is an important subset of HSV-1-induced diseases. Herpes keratitis is important among ocular infections in developed countries because it is difficult to treat, recurs unexpectedly, and sometimes leads to corneal scarring and blindness. There are approximately 20,000 new cases of herpes keratitis annually in the U.S. and 28,000 recurrent cases, leading to 6000 corneal transplants.⁽⁵⁾ It is a recurrent disease where HSV-1 reactivation in the ganglion leads to repeated infections in the cornea with subsequent scarring and opacity.⁽⁶⁾

Recurrences of HSV-2 infection account for the majority of genital herpes cases (a few cases are caused by recurrent HSV-1). A large, recent serosurvey indicates that 21.9% of the U.S. population, some 50 million persons, are infected with HSV-2.⁽⁷⁾ Among these HSV-2 infected persons, approximately 10-20% (5-10 million persons) have recognized genital herpes.

Three components are believed to account for reactivation of HSV-induced diseases in animal models and in humans. The first component is viral strain. For instance, the common HSV-1 laboratory strains McKrae and 17 syn⁺ reactivate with reasonable frequency in mouse and rabbit models of disease.⁽⁸⁻¹¹⁾ In contrast, the HSV-1 laboratory strain KOS does not reactivate readily in vivo, requiring explantation of the latently-infected trigeminal ganglion before replicating virus appears.⁽¹²⁾ Viral strain differences probably also occur in humans, although this has been less well studied than in animals.

The second component that contributes to expression of HSV-induced diseases are various environmental factors. Social stress, hyperthermia, hypothermia, skin irritation, ultraviolet (UV) light exposure, and immunosuppression are all well-established triggers for HSV reactivation in animal models.^((8, 13-16)) In humans, fever, wind, sunburn, and surgical manipulation of the ganglion are inducers of HSV reactivation.⁽¹⁷⁻¹⁹⁾ HSV-1 and HSV-2 reactivating stimuli, while not identical, are similar in both animals and humans. For instance, UV exposure causes HSV-1 ocular reactivation in mice and HSV-2 genital reactivation in guinea pigs.

The third component of susceptibility to HSL is host genetics. Differences among inbred strains of mice have a strong influence on the frequency of HSV-1 reactivation in animal models.^((20, 21)) For instance, Balb/c mice reactivate much more readily than the C57B1/6 strain. Several studies have linked human HLA types to susceptibility to both herpes labialis and genital herpes.⁽²²⁻²⁶⁾ For instance, the allelic frequency of HLA-B5 and Aw30 are increased in patients with herpes simplex keratitis. Likewise, the frequency of HLA-A1 is increased in patients with frequent genital herpes outbreaks while HLA-B27 appears to have a protective effect. HSV-1 induced erythema multiforme may be strongly linked to certain HLA-DQB 1 alleles,⁽²⁴⁾ but evidence for HLA linkage of the most common HSV-1 induced disease—herpes labialis—is much weaker. Russell and Schlaut found HLA-A1 was significantly increased in HSL patients,⁽²⁷⁾ a finding not confirmed by Legendre et. al.⁽²⁸⁾ These older studies suffer from uncertainties in patient selection due to serologic assays that could not distinguish infection with HSV-1 from infection with HSV-2.

We performed an unbiased study looking at human genes linked to HSL. This was accomplished by HSL phenotyping study subjects genotyped as part of the Utah Genetic Reference Project (UGRP). We have identified human linkage to a human gene(s) that confers resistance or susceptibility to cold sores (referred to as “HSL susceptibility”).

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to the field of human genetics. More specifically, the present invention relates generally to methods and materials used to isolate and detect genes conferring resistance or susceptibility to herpes simplex labialis (HSL) (HSL susceptibility gene), some alleles of which cause susceptibility to or protection from herpes simplex labialis. The present invention further relates to somatic mutations in the HSL susceptibility gene and the use in diagnosis and prognosis of herpes simplex labialis. Additionally, the invention relates to somatic mutation in the HSL susceptibility gene in other human diseases and the use in the diagnosis and prognosis of human disease.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1. Informative vs. less informative UGRP families.

FIG. 2. The HSL phenotype links to a 7-cM non-recombinant region on human chromosome 21. Results of the linkage analysis using the CEPH 9.0 database are displayed. Maximum LOD scores obtained with the dominant and recessive models are displayed.

FIG. 3. Examples of a SNP assayed by SSCP gel analysis. Genotypes for the five individuals are given above each lane. In SSCP analysis the sense and anti-sense strand of each sequence assumes a sequence specific conformation resulting in two bands in homozygous and four bands in heterozygous individuals.⁽⁴⁵⁾

FIG. 4. The case of four polymorphisms found in linkage disequilibrium.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The invention provides methods of identifying patients having a variant allele of a gene associated with susceptability or resistance to HSL. Thus, one embodiment of the invention provides methods useful in identifying persons which may be in need of viral prevention and/or treatment, without the person having to suffer frequent HSL episodes.

Serotyping and phenotyping of 350 subjects in 31 families currently enrolled in the Utah Genetic Reference Project (UGRP) was conducted. Through genetic linkage analysis in 87 individuals in 9 of these families, a 7-cM region of the human genome that is likely to encode one or more genes conferring resistance or susceptibility to HSL (cold sores) (HSL susceptibility gene) was identified. Multipoint linkage analysis shows strong evidence for linkage (logarithm of odds (LOD) score=3.5) near marker abmc65 (D21S409). This apparent linkage was confirmed by a non- parametric genetic linkage analysis of this region (p=0.0005 at marker abmc65 (D21S409)). This human herpes susceptibility or resistance region lies on the long arm of chromosome 21,21q21, and includes 6 genes, which comprise some of the embodiments of the present invention.

Susceptability or resistance may result from a nucleotide change in the gene (addition, deletion or substitution) affecting expression of the gene by altering the timing and/or kinetics of expression or the nature of the resulting expression product. For example, some changes reduce transcription or translation of an expression product. Other changes result in a polypeptide having altered properties (cf the sickle cell mutation). Still other changes introduce a premature stop codon thereby resulting in truncated expression product.

HSV-1 Serologies

HSV-1 type-specific serologies were performed on serum available from 350 individuals included in the UGRP families #1-33. These persons were all 18 years of age or older and volunteers in the Utah Genetic Reference Project (UGRP). Glycoprotein-G-based type-specific ELISA was performed on each individual's serum according to the manufacturer's instructions (Focus Technologies, Cypress, Calif.). Three hundred forty-nine tests were either positive or negative; with 1 equivocal result. Among the 349 serotyped individuals, 251 (72%) were seropositive and 98 (28%) were seronegative.

Serotyping was performed using serum, however, other sample sources known in the art may be used, including, but not limited to, saliva, buccal cells, hair roots, amniotic fluid, and any other suitable cell or tissue having genetic material. In addition, HSV was detected using a type-specific ELISA assay, however, any other appropriate assay may be used to detect the presence or absence of HSV and/or determine the serotype.

Phenotyping of the UGRP Subjects

Each of these 350 UGRP participants was asked to report information about whether they had ever experienced HSL (“cold sores” or “fever blisters”) and, if so, the frequency, nature, and triggering stimuli for their outbreaks via a standardized questionnaire. The subjects were asked to distinguish the appearance of “cold sores,” which normally occur on the lips, nose, or face, from “canker sores” (apthous ulcers), which normally occur inside the mouth on the tongue, cheeks, or gums. Sufficient information to allow determination of an annual HSL frequency was obtained in 214 of the 251 seropositive individuals (87%). HSL frequency is strongly correlated with severity of the episodes, making information about episode frequency particularly valuable as a measure of phenotype.⁽²⁹⁾ Information about HSL triggers, lifetime episodes, and prodromal symptoms was also collected.

The annual frequency of HSL was self-reported in 190 of the 251 (76%) seropositive individuals. In another 24 individuals the annual frequency of HSV was estimated based on their ages, the number of reported lifetime HSL episodes, and the age of onset of HSL. Twenty-three of the 24 individuals who had an annual frequency of HSV ended up with the “mild” phenotype and were excluded from the subsequent analysis. One individual reported an estimated 100 lifetime episodes over some 50 years and was therefore included in the “frequently affected” phenotype group. Therefore, sufficient information to allow determination of an annual HSL frequency was obtained in 214 of the 251 seropositive individuals (87%). Among these 214 reporting seropositive individuals, 149 (70%) had experienced one or more HSL episodes in their lifetime. The remaining 65 individuals (30%) were HSV-1 seropositive, but completely unaffected by any recognized HSL episodes. Phenotyping according to self-reported or estimated annual frequency of HSL is shown in Table 1. TABLE 1 Distribution of HSL Annual Frequency Among HSV-1 Seropositive Reporting Subjects. Number of HSL Episodes per Year HSL (Annual Frequency) Phenotype N(%) None Unaffected 65 (30) 0.1-1.9 Mildly 86 (40) Affected ≧2.0 Frequently 63 (29) Affected All HSV-1 + Reporting Individuals — 214 (100)

Thirty percent of the reporting subjects were completely “unaffected” by HSL episodes. These persons were HSV-1 seropositive but had never had any recognized episodes of HSL, indicating protection from HSV-1 induced disease. At the other end of the spectrum were subjects who were also HSV-1 seropositive and had been definitely and repeatedly afflicted by HSL episodes, indicating susceptibility to HSV-1 induced disease. A cutoff of ≧2 HSL episodes per year was arbitrarily chosen to include the most “frequently affected” 30% of subjects.

The annual frequency of HSL in our population is similar to that reported in other large surveys of HSL. For instance, Ship et. al reported ≧2 HSL episodes per year among one-third of 1399 participants.⁽³⁰⁾ In another cross-sectional study of blood donors in Wisconsin, among 452 total subjects, 71 (16%) had experienced 2 or more episodes of HSL per year.⁽³¹⁾ This figure is comparable with our results, where 63 of 350 (18%) total participants reported ≧2 HSL episodes per year.

Among the 251 HSV-1 seropositive individuals, there were no apparent sex-related differences in reporting (p=0.29, Fishers Exact test) or the annual frequency of HSL (phenotype, p=0.71, X² test for trend) (Table 2).

The use of stringently defmed phenotypes, “unaffected” vs. “frequently affected,” gave a high level of confidence in selecting patients for the subsequent genetic analysis. The principle disadvantage of the stringent phenotype rule is that 86 individuals (40%) who experienced some, but less than 2.0 episodes of HSL per year are of uncertain or “mild” phenotype and were excluded to keep the phenotypes as clear-cut as possible. However, the mild phenotype may be used for analysis.

HSL phenotypes were placed on pedigrees of the first 33 UGRP families and examined for informativeness. Families were considered to be potentially informative (UGRP Family #32) if they included both affected and unaffected individuals, preferably in multiple generations (FIG. 1A). Persons who were HSV-1 seronegative (uninfected), did not report, or had some HSL episodes but less than 2 per year (“mildly affected”), were considered to be of indeterminate phenotype and were, excluded from the analysis. Families were considered to be relatively uninformative (for example, UGRP Family #15) for the HSL phenotype if most individuals in the family are of an indeterminate or mild phenotype and were excluded from the analysis (FIG. 1B). TABLE 2 Sex Distribution and Reporting HSL Phenotypes among HSV-1 Seropositive Individuals. HSL Phenotype Males Females Total Unaffected 27 38 65 Mildly affected 50 36 86 Frequently affected 24 39 63 Total Reporting 101 113 214 No Report 21 16 37 Total All HSV-1 122 129 251 Seropositives Genotyping and Linkage Analysis of the UGRP Participants

A genome scan using the CEPH version 9.0 database for all the individuals in the 31 UGRP families phenotyped for HSL was undertaken. Genetic linkage analyses comparing the “frequently affected” and “unaffected” phenotypes, assuming autosomal dominant and recessive modes of inheritance, were performed. Of the 31 UGRP families phenotyped for HSL, chromosome 21 genotyping was completed for 9 families, including 87 HSV-1 seropositive individuals. This data identified a region on human chromosome 21 that generates a cluster of positive LOD scores, demonstrating linkage (Table 3). Positive LOD score clusters were also seen on chromosomes 3, 10, 12, 13, 19, and 20 (data not shown), but the highest LOD scores for both dominant and recessive models were observed at chromosome 21q21.1 (FIG. 2). TABLE 3 Two-Point LOD Scores for markers on Chromosome 21q. Recombination Fraction Marker 0.001 0.01 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 Autosomal Dominant Model D21S120/GT 2.22 2.18 2.00 1.76 1.22 0.69 0.23 abmc37b/(AC)n 0.86 0.86 0.82 0.73 0.50 0.26 0.07 p21-4U/MspI 0.19 0.23 0.32 0.34 0.27 0.15 0.04 abmc65/(AC)n 1.81 1.78 1.65 1.45 1.01 0.55 0.17 abmc2 0.90 0.91 0.92 0.87 0.65 0.36 0.11 abmc52/(AC)n 2.59 2.55 2.33 2.04 1.41 0.77 0.24 VS17TB2/pcr 1.30 1.29 1.22 1.10 0.80 0.47 0.18 Autosomal Recessive Model D21S120/GT 0.51 0.71 1.16 1.39 1.32 0.88 0.33 abmc37b/(AC)n −0.97 −0.78 −0.33 −0.01 0.23 0.19 0.07 p21-4U/MspI 1.39 1.36 1.22 1.05 0.71 0.39 0.12 abmc65/(AC)n 2.44 2.41 2.22 1.95 1.36 0.75 0.23 abmc2/(AC)n −0.98 −0.58 0.14 0.44 0.49 0.31 0.09 abmc52/(AC)n 1.10 1.56 2.16 2.19 1.69 0.97 0.31 VS17TB2/pcr −0.38 0.24 1.22 1.48 1.29 0.80 0.29 The highest LOD score at each marker are shown in bold typeface.

The highest LOD score for the dominant model was 2.59 (theta=0.001) at marker abmc52 (D21S406) (Table 3, FIG. 2). The highest LOD score for the recessive model was 2.44 (theta=0.001) at marker abmc65 (D21S409) (Table 3, FIG. 2). Markers abmc 65 and P21-4U are flanked by recombinations at markers abmc37b (D21S1234) and abmc2 (D21S364), in the recessive model. Since recombination events were identified in the recessive model, multipoint analysis could be performed with this model. Multipoint analysis was performed by using LINKMAP, a subroutine of the LINKAGE genetic analysis software. We analyzed adjacent markers carrying out sequential three-point linkage runs across the region from marker abmc37b (D21S1234) to marker abmc52 (D21S406). This multipoint analysis revealed a maximum location score of 3.5 at marker abmc65 (D21S409) in the recessive model. Linkage was confirmed by non-parametric analysis (GENEHUNTER) of this region, resulting in a p value of 0.0005 at marker abmc65 (D21S409).

The non-recombinant region identified in the recessive model defines a 7-cM HSL candidate region which is approximately 2.8 Mb in size. (See UCSC Human Genome Project Working Draft browser [June 2002 release, available online at: genome.cse.ucsc.edu/], which is incorporated by reference herein.) This region of non-recombination (D21S1234-D21S364) includes 4 known human genes and 2 open reading frames (genes).

Thus, the invention provides methods of diagnosing susceptibility to infection and reactivation of HSV by detection of markers linked to the HSL susceptability gene on human chromosome 21. Markers are linked if they occur within 50 cM from each other or the HSL susceptability gene. Preferably, markers occur within 15 cM and more preferably within 5 to 1 cM of the gene. The closer the polymorphic marker is to HSL susceptability locus, the less likely there is to be a meiotic recombination event between the two loci. The polymorphic marker is usually outside the HSL susceptability gene, but may also occur within the gene. The preferred markers include those between D21S1234 and D21S364. In one embodiment, markers within 5 cM of D21S409, abmc 65, are used. In addition, markers within the HSL susceptability gene itself may be used. The methods may analyze for the presence of alleles of two polymorphic markers spaced either side of the HSL susceptability gene, wherein both markers demonstrate linkage disequilibrium with the HSL susceptability gene. Thus, absent a rare double recombination event, the presence of both alleles signals the presence of the variant gene.

The present invention also includes kits for the practice of the methods of the invention. The kits comprise a vial, tube, or any other container which contains one or more oligonucleotides, which are capable of hybridizing to a DNA segment within chromosome 21q21, which DNA segment is linked to the HSL susceptability gene. Preferably, the oligonucleotide are capable of hybridizing to a segment of chromosome 21 between markers D21S1234 and D21S364. The kits may contain two such oligonucleotides, which are capable of priming amplification of a segment of chromosomal DNA. The segment selected for amplification can be a polymorphic marker linked to the HSL susceptability gene or a region from the HSL susceptability gene that includes a site at which a variation is known to occur. The kits may also contain a pair of oligonucleotides for detecting precharacterized variations. For example, a kit may contain oligonucleotides suitable for allele-specific oligonucleotide hybridization, or allele-specific amplification hybridization. The kit may also contain components of the amplification system, including PCR reaction materials such as buffers and a thermostable polymerase. In other embodiments, the kit of the present invention can be used in conjunction with commercially available amplification kits, such as may be obtained from GIBCO BRL (Gaithersburg, Md.) Stratagene (La Jolla, Calif.), Invitrogen (San Diego, Calif.), Boehringer Mannheim (Indianapolis, Ind.) or the like. The kits can also include positive or negative control reactions or markers, molecular weight size markers for gel electrophoresis, and the like. A kit may include instructions indicating the suitability of the kits for diagnosing susceptability to HSV infection or reactivation and indicating how the oligonucleotides are to be used for that purpose. Furthermore, where appropriate, the oligonucleotides may be labeled, for example, with biotin or any other known compound or molecule, or contain materials or instructions regarding labeling of the oligonucleotide.

I. Fine Mapping of Human HSL Susceptibility Genes.

Three hundred and fifty individuals in 31 families have been phenotyped. Among these 31 families, 9 have been genotyped at the chromosome 21 locus using markers available in the CEPH version 9.0 database. Therefore, the HSL linkage is based on results from 87 phenotyped individuals within 9 different families. Using the definitions of “informative” and “uninformative” outlined herein, we have identified 9 more potentially informative families with an additional 73 HSV-1 seropositive individuals (Table 4). TABLE 4 List of informative families proposed for more intensive genotyping at markers within the herpes susceptibility candidate regions. Not Yet Genotyped Not Yet Genotyped at ch 21 loci, at ch 21 loci, Previously Potentially Potentially Genotyped^(†) Informative Uninformative UGRP 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 11, 20, 21, 23, 24, 26, 4, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15, 16, Fam- 12, 13, 32 28, 30, 33 17, 18, 19, 22, 25, 27, ilies* 29 Total N = 9 families N = 9 additional N = 14 families N = 87 HSV-1 families N = 92 HSV-1 seropositive N = 73 additional seropositive individuals HSV-1 seropositive individuals individuals ^(†)Genotypic data is presently available for these families which were all included in the analysis disclosed herein.

Further genotyping (including the chromosome 21 HSL candidate gene region) and phenotyping may be performed on all 47 UGRP families including over 500 individuals using the methods described herein.

Six genes have been identified in the 2.8 Mb non-recombinant region. Becuase sequencing 18.8 kb of DNA for 160 people is impractical (Table 5); a two-fold approach is used to refine the present embodiments. Fine mapping of prospective HSL susceptibility loci among the 18 informative families is performed to identify additional boundaries for the non-recombinant region. This fme mapping may be carried out by using five additional polymorphic repeat markers for further linkage analysis (Table 5). Subsequently, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis may be used to construct susceptible or resistant haplotypes in the refined regions. The genes embodied herein and associated with susceptible or resistant haplotypes may be prioritized for polymorphism screening.

Fine mapping of human HSL susceptibility genes. Genetic linkage analysis in 9 new informative families with 73 additional individuals using five more polymorphic repeat markers is used to refme the HSL susceptibility region. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis across the refmed region is performed to define “resistance” or “susceptibility” haplotypes. The genes in these haplotype regions form one embodiment of the present invention.

Identification of human HSL susceptibility gene(s). The HSL susceptibility gene is sequenced, for example, sequencing in selected members of the informative families. Allelic differences are expected to follow HSL phenotypes through these families.

Sequencing of human HSL susceptibility gene(s) in human populations afflicted with HSV induced diseases. The HSL susceptibility gene(s), identified by Fine mapping of human HSL susceptibility genes and Identification of human HSL susceptibility gene(s), are tested for effects in other unrelated populations of persons afflicted with known HSV-induced diseases. For example, one or more HSL susceptibility genes are tested to determine if allelic differences extend to:

-   -   (a) other persons with well-known recurrent, ultraviolet         light-inducible HSL (cold sores),     -   (b) persons with recurrent ocular herpes (herpes simplex         keratitis), a particularly problematic subset of HSV-1         infections, and     -   (c) Persons with recurrent genital herpes caused by HSV-2.

Persons with recurrent HSV-induced diseases (“affecteds”) are compared to HSV-1 or HSV-2 seropositive persons without disease (“unaffecteds”). Allelic differences between affecteds and unaffecteds are compared by 1) analysis of SNPs identified as frequently associated with HSL susceptibility, and 2) sequencing genomic DNA of the HSL susceptibility genes. TABLE 5 Additional repeat markers for fine mapping. Distance from Identified Major SNP previous marker gene - relative Haplotype Marker D - number (kb) location blocks D21S1234(R) — D21S172 95 USP25 7 SHGC-52017 405 D21S173 535 C21orf34 5 D21S110 (NR) 337 D21S174 303 CXADR 4 BTG3 2 D21S1292 557 C21orf91 2 D21S409 (NR) 463 CHODL 3 D21S364 (R) 44 D21S406 97 Total 2,836 6 23 Additional markers for fine mapping are indicated in bold type, markers already analyzed are in normal typeface. (R) refers to a marker where a recombination event was seen, (NR) refers to markers in which no recombination was seen. The relative locations of the various candidate genes are indicated in the third column. The last column indicates the number of major haplotype blocks spanning each candidate gene for SNP haplotype analysis.

Linkage analyses for these studies may be performed using highly polymorphic, PCR-based microsatellite repeat sequences, using methods known in the art.

Genetic linkage analysis. Genetic linkage analysis is conducted by conventional methods.⁽³⁷⁾ Five markers were selected from the UCSC Human Genome Project Working Draft browser (June 2002 release, available online at: genome.cse.ucsc.edu/, herein incorporated by reference) to lie within the regions defmed herein. The refined mapping carried out in all the informative families permits identification of all families that link to the same locus and identify all flanking recombinants. New recombinants are checked by repeat genotyping, including a new blood sample, if necessary. The linkage analysis may be performed using the MLINK subroutine of the computer program FASTLINK v4.0.⁽³⁸⁻⁴²⁾ Both an autosomal dominant mode of inheritance and an autosomal recessive mode of inheritance may be used to calculate LOD scores. Actual marker allele frequencies are used in all calculations. If needed, allele frequencies may be determined using DNA from 100 UGRP unrelated grandparents. Linkage data may be examined for evidence of locus heterogeneity using the HOMOG program, version 3R.⁽⁴³⁾

SNP haplotype analysis. SNP halplotype analysis may be used to refine the candidate loci.⁽⁴⁴⁾ SNP genotype data is used to construct SNP haplotype maps. All 65 unaffected and 63 frequently affected individuals from all phenotyped families are analyzed by SSCP (128 total) since both informative and less informative families (for linkage) are expected to be informative for haplotype analysis.

A unique resource is used to select the SNPs for haplotype mapping. The data in the last column of Table 5 gives information on the number of SNP haplotype blocks to screen to span most exons of each gene in the region. The haplotype blocks were previously identified through the sequencing of chromosome 21 [available online at: perlegen.com/haplotype/] and were defmed by Patil et al.⁽⁴⁶⁾ Since most blocks can be defmed by one SNP each, 23 to 30 SNPs may be screened.

SNPs patterns in all unaffected and frequently affected persons are analyzed for segregation. If the frequency of the SNP in the general population is not known, the frequency is determined by SSCP analysis of DNA from 100 UGRP unrelated grandparents.

Single-Strand Conformational Analysis (SSCP). Single strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) analysis⁽⁴⁵⁾ may be used to genotype known SNPs in the region. PCR primers are designed to amplify a 100-230 bp fragment of DNA containing each SNP of interest for SSCP analysis. PCR reactions amplify both alleles from a given person. When the strands are denatured and resolved on polyacrylamide gels, strands corresponding to the same sequences co-migrate (sense and antisense strands migrate independently), and strands with mutations or polymorphisms appear as unique bands (FIG. 3). The electrophoretic conditions are routinely optimized for each SNP to maximize detection. Alternatively, differences in melting curves, for example, using fluorescent dye incorporation and a Roche Light Cycler, may be utilized to assay the SNP. Two to three products representative of each SSCP band pattern or melting curve may be submitted for sequencing to verify genotypes.

SNP haplotype analysis. The pedigree disequilibrium test (PDT)^((47, 48)) is used to define haplotypes associated with resistance or susceptibility to HSL within families. This method combines information from genotyped parents and each affected child, as well as discordance between affected and unaffected sib pairs, using all information available from large pedigrees. It also identifies regions of linkage disequilibrium that are shared between families, even if the haplotypes themselves are not shared. The truncated product method (TPM) of Zaykin et al.,⁽⁴⁹⁾ may be used to combine p-values in overlapping SNP haplotype windows across the genes, to look for associations of specific SNPs with disease category among unrelated individuals.

The non-recombinant region identified by the recessive model linkage analysis described herein is shown to be linked to both the “protective” and “susceptible” embodiments. The multipoint and non-parametric analyses support linkage near marker abmc65.

Fine mapping with additional polymorphic repeat markers may be used to analyze fragments of the disclosed region which confers HSL susceptibility or resistance. For instance, elimination of USP25 from the disclosed region reduces the sequencing burden by 7.7 kb per person (41% of the total sequence) (Table 6).

The frequency and distribution of gene region SNPs are examined in each family. SNPs found to be associated with a particular phenotype are classified as belonging to a resistance or susceptibility haplotype. The PDT method is robust and can identify regions of haplotype disequilibrium that are common to a pedigree and the TPM method further strengthens the analysis, and indicates that significance (p<0.05) can easily be reached with sample sizes of 50 or more, even in instances of excess or deficit heterogeneity in a sample set of unrelated individuals.⁽⁴⁹⁾ Using these methods, resistance or susceptibility haplotypes are identified.

The six identified open reading frames or genes in the current 2.8-Mb non-recombinant region are listed in genetic order (centromeric to telomeric, UCSC Human Genome Project Working Draft browser, [available online at: genome.cse.ucsc.edu/l]) in Table 6. Following Table 6 is a brief description of each identified gene and its ftmction. TABLE 6 List of the six genes in the current 2.8-Mb HSL-candidate region. The six genes found in the HSL-candidate region are listed centromeric to telomeric, top to bottom. potential Function/ # of mRNA coding region Gene Protein Associations Exons length SNPs USP25 Ubiquitin Removes ubiquitin from 25 5213 bp 4 specific tagged proteins. protease 25 Expressed in neuroepithelial cells and postmitotic neurons. C21orf34 unknown Protein product with 7 620 bp ? unknown function CXADR Coxsackie Confers susceptibility of 7 2537 bp 1 and cell cultures to Coxsackie adenovirus and adenovirus receptor infections. BTG3 B-cell Tob/BTG1 family 6 1511 bp 1 transloca- antiproliferative protein, tion gene abundant in neuroepithelium C21orf91 unknown Protein product with 4 1042 bp 4 unknown function CHODL Chondro- Transmembrane protein 6 2416 bp 6 lectin found in muscle and spleen Sub-total Add 100 bp/exon for 55 5,500 sequencing to cover splice sites TOTAL 55 18,839 bp 16

CXADR: The human cellular receptor for group B coxsackieviruses and adenoviruses (CXADR) is a transmembrane glycoprotein that belongs to the immunoglobulin superfamily (SEQ ID NO:8 and 9). Thoelen et al.⁽⁵¹⁾ describe alternative splicing of the CXADR-gene and the existence of three exon-skipping splice variants in addition to the originally identified seven exon-encompassing MRNA transcript. Expression of the splice variants theoretically results in truncated proteins. These truncated CXADR proteins are believed to lack the transmembrane region of the protein, and to act as soluble receptors or perform other functions important in viral biology within the cell. Genbank Accession NM001338.

USP25: USP25 is a member of the ubiquitin protease family (UBP). The gene spans over 150 kb and is made up of 25 exons encoding a 1087-aa protein, with splice variants (SEQ ID NO:1 and 2).⁽⁵²⁾ In situ hybridization in mouse embryonic brains showed a clear correlation of expression with proliferative neuroepithelial cells and postmitotic neurons.⁽⁵³⁾ UBPs belong to a complex family of deubiquitinating enzymes that specifically cleave ubiquitin conjugates on a great variety of substrates. Ubiquitinating and deubiquitinating enzymes play an essential role in protein degradation via the 26S proteasome and thus regulate many cellular pathways including protein trafficking, cell cycle regulation, transcription regulation, and chromatin remodeling.⁽⁵⁴⁻⁵⁷⁾ Genbank Accession AAF24998.

BTG3: Yoshida et al.⁽⁵⁸⁾ identified a novel member of Tob/BTG1 family of antiproliferative genes, termed BTG3, which is abundant in neuroepithelium (SEQ ID NO:6 and 7). BTG3 expression was high in the ventricular zone of the developing central nervous system, as well as in the ovary, testis, prostate, thymus, and lung. Overexpression of BTG3 impaired serum-induced cell cycle progression from the G0/G1 to S phase. In more recent work,⁽⁵⁹⁾ it has been further shown that BTG3 interacts with the CCR4 transcription factor-associated protein Caf1. The CCR4 complex is involved in several aspects of mRNA metabolism, including transcription initiation, elongation, and niRNA degradation. Chen et al.⁽⁶⁰⁾ have shown that the CCR4 complex also has enzymatic properties demonstrating both RNA and single-stranded DNA 3′-5′ exonuclease activities. As a member of this complex, polymorphisms in BTG3 may play a role in regulating transcription of HSV genes during viral reactivation, or in the stability of HSV transcripts or genomes. Genbank Accession Q14201.

C21orf34 and C21orf91: C21of34 (SEQ ID NO:3) and C21orf91 (SEQ ID NO:10 and 11) are open reading frames predicted to encode proteins with no currently know function. Genbank Accession Numbers NM_(—)001005734; NM_(—)001005733; NM_(—)001005732; AP001666; and AF486622 (SEQ ID NO:4 and 5).

Chondrolectin: Chondrolectin has the characteristics of a Type I membrane protein (SEQ ID NO:12 and 13). It shows tissue specific expression in spleen, testis, prostate and fetal liver. Expression is limited to the vascular muscle of testis, smooth muscle of prostate stroma, heart muscle, skeletal muscle, crypts of small intestine, and red pulp of spleen.⁽⁶¹⁾ Genbank Accession Q9H9P2; AAH09418 and NP_(—)079220.

A specific polymorphism in one or more genes which confers resistance or susceptibility to HSL is within the scope of the present invention. For example, one or more polymorphism in each of two genes in a row can be detected. If the polymorphisms associated with resistance or susceptibility are always found in linkage disequilibrium (always travel together) in unaffecteds or frequently affected individuals, respectively (FIG. 4), then it may be necessary to determine which of the two genes (and which polymorphism) is important for the given phenotype. If four polymorphisms (SNPs 1-4) in two genes are in linkage disequilibrium and segregate with affection status, then the phenotype can be identified with an embodiment (see FIG. 4). Unique polymorphisms (*) in families without SNPs 1-4 can be used to resolve the issue (see FIG. 4).

Allele frequencies can be compared between subjects “affected” with HSV-induced diseases vs. “unaffected” controls as described below. Sample size calculations were performed as a difference between 2 proportions with the minimum difference set at 40%, significance of p=0.05, and power-to-detect of 80%. Given these assumptions, 20-30 affected and a similar number of unaffected subjects are screened. Affected Allele Unaffected Allele N Frequency Frequency (Sample Size)  5% 45% 22 25% 65% 28 50% 90% 25 Recurrent, Ultraviolet Light-Inducible HSL

Approximately 200 known HSV-1 seropositive persons with frequent, UV-inducible herpes labialis were followed.^((70, 71)) These persons provided informed consent and were studied in one or more clinical trials which have utilized the UV-induction model. These trials involved prevention and treatment of HSL with various antiviral drugs. The subjects were recruited into these previous trials because they identified themselves as suffering from frequent HSL episodes. Thus, the invention provides methods of identifying persons which may be in need of prevention and treatment, without the person having to suffer frequent HSL episodes.

These 200 known frequently affected persons provide a pool of “affecteds.” HSV-1 seropositivity is confirmed by type-specific ELISA testing. (HSV-2 seropositivity or seronegativity was considered irrelevant for these subjects with known frequent HSL.) An objective determination of lesion frequency and severity can be drawn from previous study records on these individuals.

The HSV-1 positive but completely “unaffected” controls are recruited from the Herpevac glycoprotein-G vaccine trial. Control subjects are drawn from HSV-1 seropositive, HSV-2 seronegative, (Western blot) screen-failures for the vaccine study. (HSV-2 seropositivite subjects will be excluded here due to supressive effects on expression of HSL.) These control subjects are selected based on having previously identified themselves as never having had herpetic diseases, including HSL, genital herpes, or ocular herpes.

Recurrent Ocular Herpes

These persons are a subset of HSV-1 seropositive persons who are severely affected. Recruitment of these “affected” subjects may be achieved through contact with practicing opthalmologists. “Unaffected” control subjects are drawn from HSV-1 seropositive, HSV-2 seronegative, and Herpevac screening failures without any history of herpetic diseases.

Recurrent Genital Herpes

These persons are selected from HSV-2 seropositive persons who are frequently affected with proven genital herpes. HSV-2 infection is proven, for example, by positive HSV-2 type-specific ELISA (Focus Technologies, Cypress, Calif.) or by Western blotting. Recruitment of these “affected” subjects may be achieved through such sources as an Infectious Disease Clinic, by attracting subjects from previous genital herpes clinical trials, or from a County Health Department Sexually Transmitted Disease Clinic, or the like. The 30 “unaffected” control subjects should be similar to those described in a), but drawn from HSV-2 seropositive, HSV-1 seronegative, Herpevac screening failures without any history of herpetic diseases.

Identification of polymorphisms in these additional patient categories may reveal novel polymorphisms associated with these diseases thus, identifying specific genotypes correlating with specific phenotypes. Detection of differences in the allelic frequencies between “affected” and “unaffected” subjects is related to the size of the subject group.

The region of chromosome 21 (q11) and the embodiments of the present invention may be utilized as functional fragments, identified by the methods described herein. The identification of linkage to the genes and markers of the present invention is important for gaining greater understanding of herpetic diseases and the factors that influence their frequency and severity. The identification of the chromosome 21 HSL gene provides a basis for new experiments centered on understanding herpes infection, latency, reactivation, and disease. Such insights may lead to new therapeutic strategies and interventions for HSV-induced diseases. In addition, methods of diagnosing patients likely to suffer recurrent outbreaks may be identified and provided with more aggressive treatment to reduce or eliminate the outbreaks. The diagnosis may be provided as a kit.

Useful diagnostic techniques include, but are not limited to fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH), direct DNA sequencing, PFGE analysis, Southern blot analysis, single stranded conformation analysis (SSCA), RNase protection assay, allele-specific oligonucleotide (ASO), dot blot analysis and PCR-SSCP.

The presence of a susceptibility allele may be determined by methods known in the art, including, but not limited to: 1) single stranded conformation analysis (SSCA); 2) denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE); 3) RNase protection assays; 4) allele-specific oligonucleotides (ASOs); 5) the use of proteins which recognize nucleotide mismatches, such as the E. coli mutS protein; 6) allele-specific PCR; 7) chemical mismatch cleavage (CMC); 8) Amplification Refractory Mutation System (ARMS); 9) restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP); 10) DNA fingerprinting; and 11) cloning, sequencing and/or amplification.

DNA fingerprinting is a broad term used to designate methods for assessing sequence differences in DNA isolated from various sources, e.g., by comparing the presence of marker DNA in samples of isolated DNA.

While the compositions and/or methods of this invention have been described in terms of embodiments or genes, it will be apparent to those of skill in the art that variations or fragments may be applied to the compositions and/or methods and in the steps or in the sequence of steps of the method described herein without departing from the concept, spirit and scope of the invention. Substitutes and modifications apparent to those skilled in the art are deemed to be within the spirit, scope and concept of the invention as disclosed herein.

All references, including publications, URLs, sequence disclosures (e.g., Genbank Accession Numbers), patents and patent applications, cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each referenece were individually and specifically indicated to be incorporated by reference and were set forth in its entirety herein.

The references on the following pages are specifically incorporated herein by reference.

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1. A method for identifying an allele of a HSL susceptibility gene, the method comprising: obtaining a nucleic acid sample; analyzing said nucleic acid sample for an allele of a HSL susceptibility gene, wherein the allele is on human chromosome 21q21 and is in linkage disequilibrium with a polymorphic marker between D21S1234 and D21S364; and determining a DNA sequence of the allele.
 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein analyzing said nucleic acid sample for an allele of a HSL susceptibility gene comprises amplifying a segment of DNA within chromosome 21q21 that spans the polymorphic marker.
 3. The method according to claim 2, further comprising the step of determining the size of the amplified segment.
 4. The method according to claim 1, wherein the nucleic acid sample is obtained from saliva, blood or buccal mucosal cells.
 5. The method according to claim 2, further comprising the step of determining the presence or absence of a restriction enzyme site within the amplified segment.
 6. The method according to claim 1 wherein the polymorphic marker is within about 4 cM of D21S409.
 7. The method according to claim 6, wherein the polymorphic marker is D21S110.
 8. The method according to claim 1, wherein the polymorphic marker is selected from the group consisting of D21S1234, D21S172, SHGC-52017, D21S173, D21S110, D21S174, D21S1292, D21S409 and D21S364.
 9. The method according to claim 8, wherein the polymorphic marker is D21S409.
 10. The method according to claim 1, further comprising: contacting the nucleic acid sample with an oligonucleotide probe capable of hybridizing to the polymorphic marker under stringent conditions; and determining whether hybridization has occurred.
 11. The method according to claim 1, wherein establishing that the allele is in linkage disequilibrium comprises determining the presence or absence of the allele in a first and a second relative, the first and second relative each being of known phenotype for susceptibility to herpes simplex virus, at least one of the relatives having a phenotype of susceptibility to herpes simplex virus and being heterozygous for the allele.
 12. The method according to claim 1, wherein the allele is on human chromosome 21q21.1.
 13. A method of diagnosing susceptibility to herpes simplex virus in a patient, the method comprising: determining the presence or absence of an allele of a polymorphic marker in the DNA of a patient, wherein the polymorphic marker is within a segment of chromosome 21q21 bordered by D21S1234 and D21S364 and is linked to a DNA segment having a variant form associated with a phenotype of susceptibility to herpes simplex virus; and establishing that the allele is in linkage disequilibrium with the variant form of the DNA segment, whereby the presence of the allele in the patient indicates susceptibility to herpes simplex virus.
 14. The method according to claim 13, wherein the polymorphic marker is D21S409.
 15. The method according to claim 13, wherein the polymorphic marker is within about 4 cM of D21S409.
 16. The method according to claim 15, wherein the polymorphic marker is D21S110.
 17. The method according to claim 13, further comprising diagnosing susceptability to herpes simplex labialis.
 18. The method according to claim 13, wherein the polymorphic marker is selected from the group consisting of D21S1234, D21S172, SHGC-52017, D21S173, D21S110, D21S174, D21S1292, D21S409 and D21S364.
 19. The method according to claim 13, wherein establishing that the allele is in linkage disequilibrium comprises determining the presence or absence of the allele in a first and a second relative of the patient, the first and second relative each being of known phenotype for susceptibility to herpes simplex virus, at least one of the relatives having a phenotype of susceptibility to herpes simplex virus and being heterozygous for the allele.
 20. The method according to claim 19, further comprising determining the phenotype of the first and the second relative.
 21. The method according to claim 20, wherein the phenotype of the first and the second relative are determined to be unaffected or frequently affected.
 22. The method according to claim 21, wherein one of the first and the second relative is a parent of the patient.
 23. The method according to claim 13, further comprising determining the presence or absence of an allele of a second polymorphic marker in the patient.
 24. The method according to claim 13, wherein the presence or absence of the allele is determined by amplifying a segment of DNA within chromosome 21q21 that spans the polymorphic marker.
 25. The method according to claim 24, further comprising the step of determining the size of the amplified segment.
 26. The method according to claim 24, further comprising the step of determining the sequence of the amplified segment.
 27. The method according to claim 24, further comprising the step of determining the presence or absence of a restriction enzyme site within the amplified segment.
 28. The method according to claim 13, wherein determining the presence or absence of the allele comprises contacting the DNA from the patient with an oligonucleotide probe capable of hybridizing to the allele under stringent conditions; and further comprising: determining whether hybridization has occurred, thereby indicating the presence of the allele.
 29. The method according to claim 28, further comprising the step of isolating a sample of DNA from the patient.
 30. The method according to claim 29, wherein the DNA is genomic and the sample is obtained from saliva, blood or buccal mucosal cells.
 31. The method according to claim 13, further comprising the step of informing the patient or a treating physician of the susceptibility of the patient to herpes simplex virus.
 32. The method according to claim 31, wherein susceptibility of the patient to herpes simplex virus comprises diagnosis of herpes keratitis.
 33. The method according to claim 31, wherein susceptibility of the patient to herpes simplex virus comprises diagnosis of labial or perioral outbreaks of vesicular herpetic lesions.
 34. The method according to claim 31, wherein susceptibility of the patient to herpes simplex virus comprises diagnosis of herpes encephalitis.
 35. The method according to claim 31, wherein susceptibility of the patient to herpes simplex virus comprises ultraviolet light-inducible HSL.
 36. The method according to claim 31, wherein susceptibility of the patient to herpes simplex virus comprises diagnosis of genital herpes.
 37. The method according to claim 31, wherein susceptibility of the patient to herpes simplex virus comprises herpes simplex labialis.
 38. The method according to claim 13, further comprising determining the presence or absence of herpes simplex virus.
 39. The method according to claim 38, further comprising determining the serotype herpes simplex virus.
 40. The method according to claim 39, wherein determining the serotype comprises a glycoprotein-G-based type-specific ELISA assay.
 41. A method of diagnosing susceptibility to recurrent herpes simplex virus labialis comprising: obtaining a nucleic acid sample from a person potentially infected with herpes simplex; determining the presence or absence of herpes simplex virus; analyzing said nucleic acid sample for an allele conferring susceptibility or protection from recurrent herpes simplex labialis; and determining the susceptibility of the person to recurrent herpes simplex labialis.
 42. The method according to claim 41, further comprising serotyping the patient.
 43. The method according to claim 42, wherein serotyping the patient determines the presence of herpes simplex virus type
 1. 